The health and economic burden of smoking in 12 Latin American countries and the potential effect of increasing tobacco taxes: an economic modelling study.

BACKGROUND: Worldwide, smoking tobacco causes 7 million deaths annually, and this toll is expected to increase, especially in low-income and middle-income countries. In Latin America, smoking is a leading risk factor for death and disability, contributes to poverty, and imposes an economic burden on health systems. Despite being one of the most effective measures to reduce smoking, tobacco taxation is underused and cigarettes are more affordable in Latin America than in other regions. Our aim was to estimate the tobacco-attributable burden on mortality, disease incidence, quality of life lost, and medical costs in 12 Latin American countries, and the expected health and economic effects of increasing tobacco taxes. METHODS: In this modelling study, we developed a Markov probabilistic microsimulation economic model of the natural history, medical costs, and quality-of-life losses associated with the most common tobacco-related diseases in 12 countries in Latin America. Data inputs were obtained through a literature review, vital statistics, and hospital databases from each country: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay. The main outcomes of the model are life-years, quality-adjusted life-years, disease events, hospitalisations, disease incidence, disease cost, and healthy years of life lost. We estimated direct medical costs for each tobacco-related disease included in the model using a common costing methodology for each country. The disease burden was estimated as the difference in disease events, deaths, and associated costs between the results predicted by the model for current smoking prevalence and a hypothetical cohort of people in each country who had never smoked. The model estimates the health and financial effects of a price increase of cigarettes through taxes, in terms of disease and health-care costs averted, and increased tax revenues. FINDINGS: In the 12 Latin American countries analysed, we estimated that smoking is responsible for approximately 345 000 (12%) of the total 2 860 921 adult deaths, 2·21 million disease events, 8·77 million healthy years of life lost, and $26·9 billion in direct medical costs annually. Health-care costs attributable to smoking were estimated to represent 6·9% of the health budgets of these countries, equivalent to 0·6% of their gross domestic product. Tax revenues from cigarette sales cover 36·0% of the estimated health expenditures caused by smoking. We estimated that a 50% increase in cigarette price through taxation would avert more than 300 000 deaths, 1·3 million disease events, gain 9 million healthy life-years, and save $26·7 billion in health-care costs in the next 10 years, with a total economic benefit of $43·7 billion. INTERPRETATION: Smoking represents a substantial health and economic burden in these 12 countries of Latin America. Tobacco tax increases could successfully avert deaths and disability, reduce health-care spending, and increase tax revenues, resulting in large net economic benefits. FUNDING: International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada.

Transmisión aérea en espacios cerrados del SARS-Cov-2 / SARS-Cov-2 airborne transmission in closed spaces

RESUMEN Se asume que la transmisión del SARS-Cov-2 en la actual pandemia es por medio de pequeñas gotas relativamente pesadas que caen rápidamente al suelo, no alejándose mucho del emisor; sin embargo, episodios de superpropagación en ambientes cerrados, y estudios actuales que muestran que al hablar un enfermo puede producir un gran cantidad de pequeñas gotas que quedan suspendidas hasta casi un cuarto de hora, harían posible la transmisión aérea, la que debería tomarse en cuenta para el reinicio de las actividades, mejorando la ventilación y evitando aglomeraciones en los espacios cerrados.

ABSTRACT Transmission of SARS-Cov-2 in the current pandemic is assumed to be through small heavy droplets that quickly fall to the ground, do not stray far from the emitter, however episodes of super- spreading in closed environments, and current studies that they show that when speaking, a patient can produce a large number of small drops that are suspended for up to a quarter of an hour, which would make air transmission possible, should be taken into account when restarting activities , improving ventilation and avoiding crowds in closed spaces.

[Financial impact of smoking on health systems in Latin America: A study of seven countries and extrapolation to the regional level]. / Impacto económico del tabaquismo en los sistemas de salud de América Latina: un estudio en siete países y su extrapolación a nivel regional.

OBJECTIVE: Estimate smoking-attributable direct medical costs in Latin American health systems. METHODS: A microsimulation model was used to quantify financial impact of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia, lung cancer, and nine other neoplasms. A systematic search for epidemiological data and event costs was carried out. The model was calibrated and validated for Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru, countries that account for 78% of Latin America's population; the results were then extrapolated to the regional level. RESULTS: Every year, smoking is responsible for 33 576 billion dollars in direct costs to health systems. This amounts to 0.7% of the region's gross domestic product (GDP) and 8.3% of its health budget. Cardiovascular disease, COPD, and cancer were responsible for 30.3%, 26.9%, and 23.7% of these expenditures, respectively. Smoking-attributable costs ranged from 0.4% (Mexico and Peru) to 0.9% (Chile) of GDP and from 5.2% (Brazil) to 12.7% (Bolivia) of health expenditures. In the region, tax revenues from cigarette sales barely cover 37% of smoking-attributable health expenditures (8.1% in Bolivia and 67.3% in Argentina). CONCLUSIONS: Smoking is responsible for a significant proportion of health spending in Latin America, and tax revenues from cigarette sales are far from covering it. The region's countries should seriously consider stronger measures, such as an increase in tobacco taxes.

Impacto económico del tabaquismo en los sistemas de salud de América Latina: un estudio en siete países y su extrapolación a nivel regional / Financial impact of smoking on health systems in Latin America: A study of seven countries and extrapolation to the regional level

Objetivo. Estimar los costos médicos directos atribuibles al tabaquismo en los sistemas de salud de América Latina. Métodos. Se utilizó un modelo de microsimulación para cuantificar el impacto económico en enfermedad cardiovascular y cerebrovascular, enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica (EPOC), neumonía, cáncer de pulmón y otras nueve neoplasias. Se realizó una búsqueda sistemática de datos epidemiológicos y de costos de los eventos. El modelo se calibró y validó para Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, México y Perú, países que representan el 78% de la población de América Latina; luego se extrapolaron los resultados a nivel regional. Resultados. Cada año el tabaquismo es responsable de 33 576 millones de dólares en costos directos para el sistema de salud. Esto equivale a 0,7% del producto interno bruto (PIB) de la región y a 8,3% del presupuesto sanitario. La enfermedad cardiovascular, la EPOC y el cáncer fueron responsables de 30,3%, 26,9% y 23,7% de este gasto, respectivamente. El costo atribuible al tabaquismo varió entre 0,4% (México y Perú) y 0,9% (Chile) del PIB y entre 5,2% (Brasil) y 12,7% (Bolivia) del gasto en salud. En la región, la recaudación impositiva por la venta de cigarrillos apenas cubre 37% del gasto sanitario atribuible al tabaquismo (8,1% en Bolivia y 67,3% en Argentina). Conclusiones. El tabaquismo es responsable de una importante proporción del gasto sanitario en América Latina, y la recaudación impositiva por la venta de cigarrillos está lejos de llegar a cubrirlo. La profundización de medidas como el aumento de impuestos al tabaco debería ser seriamente considerada por los países de la Región.

Objective. Estimate smoking-attributable direct medical costs in Latin American health systems. Methods. A microsimulation model was used to quantify financial impact of cardio-vascular and cerebrovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia, lung cancer, and nine other neoplasms. A systematic search for epidemio-logical data and event costs was carried out. The model was calibrated and validated for Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru, countries that account for 78% of Latin America’s population; the results were then extrapolated to the regional level. Results. Every year, smoking is responsible for 33 576 billion dollars in direct costs to health systems. This amounts to 0.7% of the region’s gross domestic product (GDP) and 8.3% of its health budget. Cardiovascular disease, COPD, and cancer were respon-sible for 30.3%, 26.9%, and 23.7% of these expenditures, respectively. Smoking-attributable costs ranged from 0.4% (Mexico and Peru) to 0.9% (Chile) of GDP and from 5.2% (Brazil) to 12.7% (Bolivia) of health expenditures. In the region, tax reve-nues from cigarette sales barely cover 37% of smoking-attributable health expenditu-res (8.1% in Bolivia and 67.3% in Argentina). Conclusions. Smoking is responsible for a significant proportion of health spending in Latin America, and tax revenues from cigarette sales are far from covering it. The region’s countries should seriously consider stronger measures, such as an increase in tobacco taxes.

Impacto económico del tabaquismo en los sistemas de salud de América Latina: un estudio en siete países y su extrapolación a nivel regional / Financial impact of smoking on health systems in Latin America: A study of seven countries and extrapolation to the regional level

RESUMEN Objetivo Estimar los costos médicos directos atribuibles al tabaquismo en los sistemas de salud de América Latina. Métodos Se utilizó un modelo de microsimulación para cuantificar el impacto económico en enfermedad cardiovascular y cerebrovascular, enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica (EPOC), neumonía, cáncer de pulmón y otras nueve neoplasias. Se realizó una búsqueda sistemática de datos epidemiológicos y de costos de los eventos. El modelo se calibró y validó para Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, México y Perú, países que representan el 78% de la población de América Latina; luego se extrapolaron los resultados a nivel regional. Resultados Cada año el tabaquismo es responsable de 33 576 millones de dólares en costos directos para el sistema de salud. Esto equivale a 0,7% del producto interno bruto (PIB) de la región y a 8,3% del presupuesto sanitario. La enfermedad cardiovascular, la EPOC y el cáncer fueron responsables de 30,3%, 26,9% y 23,7% de este gasto, respectivamente. El costo atribuible al tabaquismo varió entre 0,4% (México y Perú) y 0,9% (Chile) del PIB y entre 5,2% (Brasil) y 12,7% (Bolivia) del gasto en salud. En la región, la recaudación impositiva por la venta de cigarrillos apenas cubre 37% del gasto sanitario atribuible al tabaquismo (8,1% en Bolivia y 67,3% en Argentina). Conclusiones El tabaquismo es responsable de una importante proporción del gasto sanitario en América Latina, y la recaudación impositiva por la venta de cigarrillos está lejos de llegar a cubrirlo. La profundización de medidas como el aumento de impuestos al tabaco debería ser seriamente considerada por los países de la región.

ABSTRACT Objective Estimate smoking-attributable direct medical costs in Latin American health systems. Methods A microsimulation model was used to quantify financial impact of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia, lung cancer, and nine other neoplasms. A systematic search for epidemiological data and event costs was carried out. The model was calibrated and validated for Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru, countries that account for 78% of Latin America’s population; the results were then extrapolated to the regional level. Results Every year, smoking is responsible for 33 576 billion dollars in direct costs to health systems. This amounts to 0.7% of the region’s gross domestic product (GDP) and 8.3% of its health budget. Cardiovascular disease, COPD, and cancer were responsible for 30.3%, 26.9%, and 23.7% of these expenditures, respectively. Smoking-attributable costs ranged from 0.4% (Mexico and Peru) to 0.9% (Chile) of GDP and from 5.2% (Brazil) to 12.7% (Bolivia) of health expenditures. In the region, tax revenues from cigarette sales barely cover 37% of smoking-attributable health expenditures (8.1% in Bolivia and 67.3% in Argentina). Conclusions Smoking is responsible for a significant proportion of health spending in Latin America, and tax revenues from cigarette sales are far from covering it. The region’s countries should seriously consider stronger measures, such as an increase in tobacco taxes.

IMPLICATIONS OF GLOBAL PRICING POLICIES ON ACCESS TO INNOVATIVE DRUGS: THE CASE OF TRASTUZUMAB IN SEVEN LATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES.

OBJECTIVES: Differential pricing, based on countries' purchasing power, is recommended by the World Health Organization to secure affordable medicines. However, in developing countries innovative drugs often have similar or even higher prices than in high-income countries. We evaluated the potential implications of trastuzumab global pricing policies in terms of cost-effectiveness (CE), coverage, and accessibility for patients with breast cancer in Latin America (LA). METHODS: A Markov model was designed to estimate life-years (LYs), quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), and costs from a healthcare perspective. To better fit local cancer prognosis, a base case scenario using transition probabilities from clinical trials was complemented with two alternative scenarios with transition probabilities adjusted to reflect breast cancer epidemiology in each country. RESULTS: Incremental discounted benefits ranged from 0.87 to 1.00 LY and 0.51 to 0.60 QALY and incremental CE ratios from USD 42,104 to USD 110,283 per QALY (2012 U.S. dollars), equivalent to 3.6 gross domestic product per capita (GDPPC) per QALY in Uruguay and to 35.5 GDPPC in Bolivia. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis showed 0 percent probability that trastuzumab is CE if the willingness-to-pay threshold is one GDPPC per QALY, and remained so at three GDPPC threshold except for Chile and Uruguay (4.3 percent and 26.6 percent, respectively). Trastuzumab price would need to decrease between 69.6 percent to 94.9 percent to became CE in LA. CONCLUSIONS: Although CE in other settings, trastuzumab was not CE in LA. The use of health technology assessment to prioritize resource allocation and support price negotiations is critical to making innovative drugs available and affordable in developing countries.

Attitudes and relationship between physicians and the pharmaceutical industry in a public general hospital in Lima, Peru.

BACKGROUND: The interaction between physicians and the pharmaceutical industry influences physicians' attitudes and prescribing behavior. Although largely studied in the US, this topic has not been well studied in resource-poor settings, where a close relationship between physicians and industry still exists. OBJECTIVE: To describe physician interactions with and attitudes towards the pharmaceutical industry in a public general hospital in Lima, Peru. DESIGN: Descriptive, cross-sectional study through an anonymous, self-filled questionnaire distributed among faculty and trainee physicians of five different clinical departments working in a Peruvian public general hospital. A transcultural validation of an existing Spanish questionnaire was performed. Exposure to marketing activities, motivations to contact pharmaceutical representatives and attitudes towards industry were studied. Collected data was analyzed by degree of training, clinical department, gender and teaching status. Attitudes were measured on a four-point LIKERT scale. RESULTS: 155 physicians completed the survey, of which 148 were included in the study sample. 94.5% of attending physicians reported ongoing encounters with pharmaceutical representatives. The most common industry-related activities were receiving medical samples (91.2%), promotional material (87.8%) and attending meetings in restaurants (81.8%). Respondents considered medical samples and continuing medical education the most ethically acceptable benefits. We found significant differences between attendings and residents, and teaching and non-teaching attendings. An association between the amount of encounters with pharmaceutical representatives, and attitudes towards industry and acceptance of medical samples was found. CONCLUSIONS: A close physician-industry relationship exists in the population under study. The contact is established mainly through pharmaceutical representatives. Medical samples are the most received and ethically accepted benefit. The attitudes of physicians on the ethical standards of acceptance of medical samples and other benefits are closely related with their exposure to the pharmaceutical industry. Future studies could explore the motivations of physicians working in resource-poor settings to maintain a close relationship with industry.

Asociación entre el estado de infección por VIH y complicaciones infecciosas poscesárea electiva / Association between HIV infection status and infectious complications after an elective c-section

Objetivos. Determinar la asociación entre VIH y complicaciones infecciosas (CI) después de una cesárea electiva. Materiales y métodos. Estudio de cohortes no concurrentes; se revisaron las historias clínicas de 237 cesáreas electivas en gestantes VIH reactivas atendidas en el Instituto Nacional Materno Perinatal de Perú, realizadas entre 2004 a 2012. Estas fueron pareadas por cirujano y fecha de cesárea con 237 gestantes VIH no reactivas. Se recogieron datos sociodemográficos, clínicos, características de la cesárea y relacionados a la infección por el VIH. Las CI se evaluaron según las recomendaciones del NHI Consensus Development Task Force. Se realizó el análisis bivariado con un nivel de significación del 5% y el cálculo del Odds Ratio (OR) con intervalo de confianza (IC) al 95%. Se construyó un modelo de regresión logística condicional. Resultados. El 13,9% de mujeres VIH positivas presentaron CI y 9,7% del grupo control (OR: 1,5 IC95% [0,9-2,7]); las expuestas (mujeres con VIH) tuvieron mayor probabilidad de tener una infección del tracto urinario (ITU) que las no expuestas (ORa: 4,5 IC95% [1,4-14,5]). Se encontró asociación entre CI y el tipo de incisión (ORa: 2,3 IC95% [1,1-4,5]) y el tiempo de hospitalización (6 frente a 3 días, p<0,001). Conclusiones. Las mujeres VIH positivas sin tratamiento antirretroviral tuvieron mayor riesgo de CI; aunque no se observó mayor riesgo global de CI en expuestas después de una cesárea electiva. El principal factor de riesgo asociado a una CI poscesárea electiva en mujeres VIH positivas fue el tipo de incisión.

Objectives: To determine the connection between HIV and infectious complications (IC) after an elective C-section. Materials and methods. A non-concurrent cohort study was conducted, in which the clinical records of 237 elective C-sections on HIV-positive pregnant women who gave birth at the Instituto Nacional Materno Perinatal (National Maternal Perinatal Institute) between 2004 and 2012 were revised. The records were matched by surgeon and C-section date, with 237 HIV-negative pregnant women. Socio-demographic and clinical data were collected, along with characteristics of the C-section and data related to the HIV infection. IC were evaluated according to the NIH Consensus Development Task Force. The descriptive analysis and the bivariate analysis were carried out with a significance level of 5% for the hypothesis tests and the calculation of the Odds Ratio (OR) with a confidence interval (CI) at 95%. A conditional logistic regression model was built. Results. IC were present in 13.9% of HIV-positive women and 9.7% of the control group (OR: 1.5 CI95% [0.9-2.7]); those who were exposed (women with HIV) were more likely to have a urinary tract infection (UTI) than those who were not exposed (ORa: 4.5 CI95% [1.4-14.5]). A connection was found between the IC and the type of incision (ORa: 2.3 CI95% [1.1-4.5]) and time of hospitalization (6 versus 3 days, p<0.001). Conclusions. Exposed women did not register a greater global risk of IC after an elective C-section; however, they were, indeed, more likely to get a UTI. Those HIV-positive women who were not receiving antiretroviral treatment were in greater risk of IC. The main risk factors associated with a post C-section IC in HIV-positive women were the type of incision, as well as the surgery time with the UTI.

Asociación entre el estado de infección por VIH y complicaciones infecciosas poscesárea electiva / Association between HIV infection status and infectious complications after cesarean section elective

Objetivos. Determinar la asociación entre VIH y complicaciones infecciosas (CI) después de una cesárea electiva. Materiales y métodos. Estudio de cohortes no concurrentes; se revisaron las historias clínicas de 237 cesáreas electivas en gestantes VIH reactivas atendidas en el Instituto Nacional Materno Perinatal de Perú, realizadas entre 2004 a 2012. Estas fueron pareadas por cirujano y fecha de cesárea con 237 gestantes VIH no reactivas. Se recogieron datos sociodemográficos, clínicos, características de la cesárea y relacionados a la infección por el VIH. Las CI se evaluaron según las recomendaciones del NHI Consensus Development Task Force. Se realizó el análisis bivariado con un nivel de significación del 5 por ciento y el cálculo del Odds Ratio (OR) con intervalo de confianza (IC) al 95 por ciento . Se construyó un modelo de regresión logística condicional. Resultados. El 13,9 por ciento de mujeres VIH positivas presentaron CI y 9,7 por ciento del grupo control (OR: 1,5 IC95 por ciento [0,9-2,7]); las expuestas (mujeres con VIH) tuvieron mayor probabilidad de tener una infección del tracto urinario (ITU) que las no expuestas (ORa: 4,5 IC95 por ciento [1,4-14,5]). Se encontró asociación entre CI y el tipo de incisión (ORa: 2,3 IC95 por ciento [1,1-4,5]) y el tiempo de hospitalización (6 frente a 3 días, p mayor 0,001). Conclusiones. Las mujeres VIH positivas sin tratamiento antirretroviral tuvieron mayor riesgo de CI; aunque no se observó mayor riesgo global de CI en expuestas después de una cesárea electiva. El principal factor de riesgo asociado a una CI poscesárea electiva en mujeres VIH positivas fue el tipo de incisión. (AU)

Objectives: To determine the connection between HIV and infectious complications (IC) after an elective C-section. Materials and methods. A non-concurrent cohort study was conducted, in which the clinical records of 237 elective C-sections on HIV-positive pregnant women who gave birth at the Instituto Nacional Materno Perinatal (National Maternal Perinatal Institute) between 2004 and 2012 were revised. The records were matched by surgeon and C-section date, with 237 HIV-negative pregnant women. Socio-demographic and clinical data were collected, along with characteristics of the C-section and data related to the HIV infection. IC were evaluated according to the NIH Consensus Development Task Force. The descriptive analysis and the bivariate analysis were carried out with a significance level of 5 percent for the hypothesis tests and the calculation of the Odds Ratio (OR) with a confidence interval (CI) at 95 percent. A conditional logistic regression model was built. Results. IC were present in 13.9 percent of HIV-positive women and 9.7 percent of the control group (OR: 1.5 CI95 percent [0.9-2.7]); those who were exposed (women with HIV) were more likely to have a urinary tract infection (UTI) than those who were not exposed (ORa: 4.5 CI95% [1.4-14.5]). A connection was found between the IC and the type of incision (ORa: 2.3 CI95 percent [1.1-4.5]) and time of hospitalization (6 versus 3 days, p mayor 0.001). Conclusions. Exposed women did not register a greater global risk of IC after an elective C-section; however, they were, indeed, more likely to get a UTI. Those HIV-positive women who were not receiving antiretroviral treatment were in greater risk of IC. The main risk factors associated with a post C-section IC in HIV-positive women were the type of incision, as well as the surgery time with the UTI. (AU)

[Association between HIV infection status and infectious complications after an elective C-section]. / Asociación entre el estado de infección por VIH y complicaciones infecciosas poscesárea electiva.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the connection between HIV and infectious complications (IC) after an elective C-section. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A non-concurrent cohort study was conducted, in which the clinical records of 237 elective C-sections on HIV-positive pregnant women who gave birth at the Instituto Nacional Materno Perinatal (National Maternal Perinatal Institute) between 2004 and 2012 were revised. The records were matched by surgeon and C-section date, with 237 HIV-negative pregnant women. Socio-demographic and clinical data were collected, along with characteristics of the C-section and data related to the HIV infection. IC were evaluated according to the NIH Consensus Development Task Force. The descriptive analysis and the bivariate analysis were carried out with a significance level of 5% for the hypothesis tests and the calculation of the Odds Ratio (OR) with a confidence interval (CI) at 95%. A conditional logistic regression model was built. RESULTS: IC were present in 13.9% of HIV-positive women and 9.7% of the control group (OR: 1.5 CI95% [0.9-2.7]); those who were exposed (women with HIV) were more likely to have a urinary tract infection (UTI) than those who were not exposed (ORa: 4.5 CI95% [1.4-14.5]). A connection was found between the IC and the type of incision (ORa: 2.3 CI95% [1.1-4.5]) and time of hospitalization (6 versus 3 days, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Exposed women did not register a greater global risk of IC after an elective C-section; however, they were, indeed, more likely to get a UTI. Those HIV-positive women who were not receiving antiretroviral treatment were in greater risk of IC. The main risk factors associated with a post C-section IC in HIV-positive women were the type of incision, as well as the surgery time with the UTI.

Validation and modification of the Epworth Sleepiness Scale in Peruvian population.

PURPOSE: The main purpose of this study was to develop a cross-cultural adaptation of the Epworth Sleepiness Scale for Peruvian population (ESS-VP) and to provide evidence of reliability and validity to this scale. We also modified the ESS-VP for non-driving Peruvian population (ESS-MPV). METHODS: Participants were Peruvians between 18 and 65 years. Five-phase design: Translation and retranslation of the original scale; comprehension evaluation (n = 60); reliability or test-retest (n = 75); internal consistency and construct validity (n = 219); and change of sensibility (n = 36). Just as in the ESS-PV, the same procedure was applied to ESS-MPV except the first phase. RESULTS: The ESS-PV and ESS-MPV had an adequate comprehension. They were reliable over time (test-retest), being better within a period of 2 weeks. They also had adequate internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha: 0.790 and 0.789). Two factors were extracted in both scales, being only the first factor in which all items showed statistically significant loads. Both scales are sensitive to sleepiness change in patients with obstructive sleep apnea during treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The ESS-VP and ESS-MPV, adapted to adult Peruvian population, are comparable to the original scale, reliable, valid, and change-sensitive. It is proposed that the ESS-MPV should be applied in Peruvian population who do not drive motorized vehicles.

Implications of global pricing policies of pharmaceuticals for access the innovative drugs: the case of trastuzumab in seven Latin American countries

Background: Differential pricing (DP) on the basis of countries' purchasing power has been recommended by the WHO to secure more affordably priced medicines. However, in developing counties (DC) many innovative drugs have similar or even higher prices than in high-income countries (HIC). We conducted a cost-effectiveness (CE) analysis to estimate the impact of this pricing policy on the CE of trastuzumab in Latin-America (LA). Methods: Model structure and a common methodology for identifying costs and resource use were agreed with country teams. A Markov model was designed to evaluate life years (LY), quality adjusted life years (QALYs) and costs \r\nfrom a health care sector perspective. A systematic search on effectiveness, local epidemiology and costs studies was undertaken to populate the model. A base case scenario using transition probabilities from trastuzumab clinical trials, and two alternative scenarios with transition probabilities adjusted to reflect breast cancer epidemiology in each country, were built to better fit local cancer prognosis. Findings: Incremental discounted benefits and costs of the trastuzumab strategy ranged from 0·87 to 1·00 LY, 0·51 to 0·60 QALY and $24,683 to $60,835 (2012 US dollars). Incremental CE ratios ranged from $42,104 to $110,283 per QALY, equivalent to 3·6 gross domestic products per capita (GDPc) per QALY in Uruguay to up to 35·5 GDPc per QALY in Bolivia. The probabilistic sensitivity analysis showed a 0% probability that trastuzumab is CE if the willingness-to-pay (WTP) threshold is one GDPpc per QALY, and remains 0% at a WTP threshold of three GDPc except in Chile and Uruguay (probability 4·3% and 26·6% respectively). Conclusion: Despite its proven CE in other settings, trastuzumab was not CE in LA at its current price. Better cooperation between the public and private sectors is still needed to make innovative drugs available and affordable in DC.

[Basic principles and methodological considerations of health economic evaluations]. / Principios básicos y alcances metodológicos de las evaluaciones económicas en salud.

Health Economics is an essential instrument for health management, and economic evaluations can be considered as tools assisting the decision-making process for the allocation of resources in health. Currently, economic evaluations are increasingly being used worldwide, thus encouraging evidence-based decision-making and seeking efficient and rational alternatives within the framework of health services activities. In this review, we present an overview and define the basic types of economic evaluations, with emphasis on complete Economic Evaluations (EE). In addition, we review key concepts regarding the perspectives from which EE can be conducted, the types of costs that can be considered, the time horizon, discounting, assessment of uncertainty and decision rules. Finally, we describe concepts about the extrapolation and spread of economic evaluations in health.

Principios básicos y alcances metodológicos de las evaluaciones económicas en salud / Basic principles and methodological considerations of health economic evaluations

La economía de la salud es un instrumento indispensable para la gestión sanitaria y las evaluaciones económicas, se pueden considerar como la herramienta que asiste a la toma de decisiones para asignar recursos en el área de la salud. Hoy en día, su uso es creciente en todas las regiones del mundo y fomenta la toma de decisiones basadas en la evidencia, buscando alternativas eficientes y racionales dentro del conjunto de actividades de los servicios. En esta revisión se efecturá una visión general y se delinea los tipos básicos de evaluación económica, sobre todo de las Evaluaciones Económicas (EE) completas. Así mismo se revisará los conceptos más relevantes sobre las perspectivas desde las que se pueden realizar las EE, los tipos de costos, el horizonte temporal, los descuentos, la evaluación de la incertidumbre y las reglas de decisión. Finalmente, se describirán conceptos sobre la transferibilidad y la generalización de las Evaluaciones Económicas en salud.

Health Economics is an essential instrument for health management, and economic evaluations can be considered as tools assisting the decision-making process for the allocation of resources in health. Currently, economic evaluations are increasingly being used worldwide, thus encouraging evidence-based decision-making and seeking efficient and rational alternatives within the framework of health services activities. In this review, we present an overview and define the basic types of economic evaluations, with emphasis on complete Economic Evaluations (EE). In addition, we review key concepts regarding the perspectives from which EE can be conducted, the types of costs that can be considered, the time horizon, discounting, assessment of uncertainty and decision rules. Finally, we describe concepts about the extrapolation and spread of economic evaluations in health.

Linfadenomegalia superficial (LAS): Correlato clínico patológico en 154 pacientes del Hospital Nacional Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú / Superficial Lymphadenomegaly (SL): clinico-pathological correlation in 154 patients of the National Hospital Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú

Introducción: la linfadenomegalia superficial (LAS) son hallazgos clínicos frecuentes en la práctica médica que pueden ser las primeras manifestaciones de una enfermedad de trascendencia o de un síndrome clínico específico. Objetivo: realizar un correlato clínico-patológico en pacientes con LAS que acudieron por primera vez a la consulta médica sin un diagnóstico conocido. Materiales y Métodos: estudio prospectivo transversal en el que se incluyeron pacientes con linfoadenomegalia superficial (LAS) mayor de 1 centímetro con sospecha de TBC ganglionar. Se realizaron biopsias ganglionares, aspirados por aguja fina, test diagnósticos complementarios; del mismo modo se estructuró una clasificación histopatológica en la que fueron distribuidos los pacientes para luego correlacionarse con los hallazgos clínicos. Resultados: fueron evaluados 154 pacientes de los cuales 55 de 70 (45,5%), tuvieron diagnóstico de certeza para micobacteriosis ganglionar gracias a la histopatología sumada al cultivo. Treinta y uno (20,1%) tuvieron linfadenomegalia categorizada como inespecífica en la cual no se pudo hallar ninguna causa etiológica de enfermedad. En el resto de pacientes los hallazgos etiológicos fueron diversos entre los que destacaron la enfermedad por arañazo de gato, micosis ganlionares, sarcoma de Kaposi, linfomas, metástasis neoplásicas y sindrome retroviral agudo por VIH. Conclusión: las linfadenomegalias superficiales son valiosos signos para el diagnóstico clínico en muchas enfermedades a veces no sospechadas. El médico debe saber decidir cuando ordenar una biopsia ganglionar y como interpretar los resultados histopatológicos de la misma a fin de tener el mayor grado de certeza etiológica.

Introduction: enlargement of superficial lymph nodes is a frequent clinical finding which may be among the first evidences of a significant illness or of a specific clinical syndrome. Objective: exploring clinico-pathological relationships in patients consulting for the first time with a clinically detectable lymphadenopathy and no defined diagnosis. Materials and Methods: cross sectional prospective study including patients with clinically detectable lymphadenopathy (nodes over 1 cm in diameter) and often also suspicion of tuberculosis. Lymph node biopsies, fine needle aspirations, and other contributing diagnostic tests were performed. A histopathological classification was structured to arrange the information on the patients and to correlate laboratory findings with clinical ones. Results: patients recruited were 154; 55 (45.5%) out of 70 patients who had a tentative diagnosis of tuberculosis or other mycobacterial disease had it confirmed by histopathology and culture; 31 (20.1 %) patients had non-specific lymphadenopathy, with no definitive etiological findings. In the remainder of patients there were several different definitive diagnoses: cat-scratch disease, mycoses, Kaposi’s sarcoma, lymphomas, metastatic neoplasias and acute retroviral syndrome caused by HIV infection. Conclusion: lymphadenopathy is a valuable sign for clinical diagnosis of many sometimes unsuspected diseases. Physicians should know how to decide when to order a lymph node biopsy and how to interpret the resulting histopathological findings, to improve diagnostic certainty.

[Hyperendemic and mesoendemic zones of Fasciola infection surrounding urban Lima : an emerging disease?]. / Zonas hiperendémicas y mesoendémicas de la infección por Fasciola hepática aledañas a la ciudad de Lima: una enfermedad emergente?

INTRODUCTION: The infection caused by F. hepatica is endemic in Perú with an increasing number of endemic areas, the reporting of them is essential to know the impact of the infection in the population. OBJECTIVE: To report the prevalence rate of fascioliasis in areas where it had not been detected human cases previously. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Three districts in Lima department were studied; La Chaqui, province of Canta; San Lorenzo of Quinti and San Miguel of Sangallaya, province of Huarochirí. It included children and young adults (less than 25 years old). One stool sample by person was collected and processed by means of the Rapid Sedimentation Technique described by Lumbreras. RESULTS: Overall, the prevalence rate in the three districts was 8.6% (n=291); 3.9% (n=102) in La Chaqui, 26.9% (n=27) in San Miguel of Sangallaya, and 8.6% (n=163) in San Lorenzo of Quinti. CONCLUSION: F. hepatica infection is a Health Public problem in populations surrounding Lima city. Therefore, control and prevention measurements, besides being addressed to authochtonus people, should also take into account high-risk groups such as frequent travelers to endemic areas and people with dietetic programs based on raw vegetables.

Zonas hiperendémicas y mesoendémicas de la infección por fasciola hepática aledañas a la ciudad de Lima: una enfermedad emergente? / Hyperendemic and mesoendemic zones of the infection by hepatic fasciola bordering to the city of Lima: an emergent disease?

Introducción: La infección causada por F. hepática es endémica en el Perú con un creciente número de áreas endémicas, el reporte de estas es esencial para conocer el impacto de la infección en la población. Objetivo: Reportar la tasa de prevalencia de fasciolosis en zonas donde previamente no se habían detectado casos humanos. Material y métodos: Se estudiaron 3 distritos alrededor de la ciudad de Lima: La Chaqui, provincia de Canta; San Lorenzo de Quinti y San Miguel de Sangallaya, provincia de Huarochirí, pertenecientes al departamento de Lima. Se incluyó a niños y adultos jóvenes (menores de 25 años). Cada muestra de heces se analizó mediante la Técnica de Sedimentación Rápida de Lumbreras. Resultados: La prevalencia global por métodos coprológicos en los tres distritos fue 8.6 por ciento (n=291); 3.9 por ciento (n=102) en La Chaqui, 26.9 por ciento (n=27) en San Miguel de Sangallaya, y 8.6 por ciento (n=163) en San Lorenzo de Quinti. Conclusión: La infección por F. hepática infection es un problema de Salud Pública en pueblos alrededor de la ciudad de Lima. Por lo tanto, las medidas de control y prevención, a parte de ser dirigidas a pobladores autóctono, deben tomar en cuenta grupos de alto riesgo como viajeros frecuentes y personas con regímenes dietéticos basados en vegetales crudos.

Introduction: The infection caused by F. hepatica is endemic in Perú with anincreasing number of endemic areas, the reporting of them is essential to know the impact of the infection in the population. OBJECTIVE: To report the prevalence rate of fascioliasis in areas where it had not been detected human cases previously. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Three districts in Lima department were studied; La Chaqui,province of Canta; San Lorenzo of Quinti and San Miguel of Sangallaya, province of Huarochirí. It included children and young adults (less than 25 years old). One stool sample by person was collected and processed by means of the Rapid Sedimentation Technique described by Lumbreras. RESULTS: Overall, the prevalence rate in the three districts was 8.6 per cent (n=291); 3.9 per cent (n=102) in La Chaqui, 26.9 per cent (n=27) in San Miguel of Sangallaya, and 8.6 per cent (n=163) inSan Lorenzo of Quinti. CONCLUSION: F. hepatica infection is a Health Public problem in populations surrounding Lima city. Therefore, control and prevention measurements, besides being addressed to authoctonus people, should also take into account high-risk groups such as frequent travelers to endemic areas and people with dietetic programs based on raw vegetables.

Clinical evaluation of a 16S ribosomal RNA polymerase chain reaction test for the diagnosis of lymph node tuberculosis.

UNLABELLED: Reports on the sensitivity of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the diagnosis of lymph node tuberculosis (TB) show divergent results. We evaluated the accuracy of the Roche Amplicor Mycobacterium tuberculosis PCR test with lymph node aspirate and biopsy samples. METHODS: The study was conducted at a public reference hospital in Lima, Peru. From the period of January 2003 to January 2004, we included patients who had lymphadenopathy and in whom the attending physician suspected TB. Aspirate and biopsy samples were submitted for culturing in Lowenstein-Jensen medium, for histopathologic testing, and for PCR. The sensitivity and specificity of PCR were calculated against a reference standard based on histopathologic findings and culture. RESULTS: Our study included 154 patients. Median age was 29 years (interquartile range, 21-40 years); 97 patients (62.9%) were men. Twenty-nine patients (18.8%) had acid fast bacilli-positive histopathologic findings, and 44 (28.6%) had a positive culture result. Using the combination of histopathologic findings and culture as reference standard, 55 patients (35.7%) had a diagnosis of tuberculous lymphadenitis. The sensitivity of the PCR test was 58.2%, and the specificity was 93.9%. For biopsy tissue only, the sensitivity of PCR was 52.7%, and the specificity was 97.0%. For aspirate samples only, the sensitivity of PCR was 47.3%, and the specificity was 96.0%. CONCLUSION: The Amplicor PCR test revealed low sensitivity and high specificity for the diagnosis of lymph node TB. The sensitivity was higher in cases in which the bacillary load was high--in acid fast bacilli-positive samples and among HIV-infected patients. Considering the results of microbiological and PCR tests together, there was still a patient group in whom no final diagnosis could be established.